Growing Up

What is Bilingualism?

There are varying definitions and levels of understanding of bilingualism. The concept of bilingualism actually has two dimensions: bilinguality and bilingualism.  Bilinguality is defined as the “psychological state of an individual who has access to more than one linguistic code as a means of social communication” (Webster Dictionary, p.75).  The concept of bilingualism includes that of bilinguality, but refers equally to “the state of that linguistic community in which two languages are in contact” (Hamers & Blanc, 1983, p.6).  The person who can use two languages well is bilingual. However, most bilinguals tend to have a dominant language. A child, for example, may have access to two linguistic codes, but may not be in contact with these two codes in the same interaction (Hamers & Blanc, 1983). In between those who are totally fluent in two languages and those who are learning a second language there are many variations. Fluency in one or other language may also vary according to how much use is made of that language. Therefore, it can be said that to be bilingual does not necessarily mean ‘perfecting’ two languages. 

Bilinguality and cognitive development

Language learning is a complex endeavor that depends on both universal cognitive processes and social context. Vygotsky (1962) points out that language plays an essential role in cognitive development.  Language is a crucial tool in shaping cognition, which enables a child to organize abstract thoughts. Segalowitz (1977) suggests that the internalization of two languages rather than one results in a more complex, better equipped ‘mental calculus’, which enables the child to alternate between the two linguistic codes (Larney, L. M., 2002).  Some studies argue that bilingual children may have greater cognitive control in information processing, which provides them with the necessary foundation for metalinguistic ability (Bialystok & Ryan, 1985). However, other researchers claim that the differences between the bilingual and monolingual groups were not significant (Pearson, 1988; Navarrete, 1999).  Many studies suggest there is a greater right-hemispheric involvement in bilinguals (Carroll, 1978; Vaid & Lambert, 1979; Walters & Zatorre, 1978).

Why are early years important for becoming bilingual?

Dr. Makoto Shichida indicates in his research that 0-6 are the best ages for children’s right brain development and the right brain acquires languages very easily (Shichida, 2004). Young children pick up language as a by-product of playing and interacting with people. They are not worried by their language mistakes, nor about not finding the exact words (ASHA, 2005). They are mainly interested in getting their message across and getting answers. Young children are often regarded as linguistically gifted (Shichida, 2004) because they can learn to speak their native language fluently within less than three years.

Dr Shichida further claims that language learning is not only about acquiring intellectual knowledge but “rather concerns the hearing mechanism.” (Shichida, 2004, p.74). The frequency range for each language is different. Our ears are designed to shut the frequencies of other languages. Newborn babies have the ability to “absorb a wide range of frequencies from 160 to 16,00 Hz” (Shichida, 2004, p.74). As children grow older, their ears become accustomed to hearing the frequency and rhythm of the language they hear or use daily. And by the age of six, most children’s ears become fixed to the domain frequencies (Shichida, 2004). Alfred Tomatis, a French acoustic linguist, suggests that languages should be learned by making the ear receptive (Tomatis, 1997). The German linguist Leopold declared that, although foreign language learning after the age of ten is not impossible, it is unusual for people to excel in it (Leopold, 1939-1949). Hence, from birth to six is a “golden opportunity for learning foreign languages” (Shichida, 2004, p.76).

How do children learn better in bilingual education?

Anyone can learn a new language. One may learn two languages at the same time – simultaneously(Giugni, 2002), or one language after the other – successively(Giugni, 2002). Children especially can learn to be bilingual.They can learn two languages at home, at school, or in the community. Children need lots of practice to speak two languages, just like other skills developing. However, to young children, languages should not require great effort to learn, nor should they be struided academically or logically (Shichida, 2004).

Language development is encouraged by “an enabling environment where most learning is collaborative, intercultural” (Datta, 2002, p.231). By asking the child interesting questions and making sure adult-child conversations are child oriented, will provide them opportunities to make sense of their world (Datta, 2002). Although listening is important in language learning, yough children need various creative ways to facilitate their learning. Telling a story or role playing, singing nursery rhymes or songs, and playing language games or reading interesting books will arouse their interests in using their new language through “veral and non-verbal symbolic representations” (Datta, 2002, p.228). Finally, appropriate praise like winking or smiling, works wonders for young children. It provide the child with encouragement and a helpful atmosphere for the development of bilingualism (ASHA, 2005).

Reference:

ASHA -- American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (2005). Children and bilingualism. Retrieved on September 20, 2005 from http://nsslha.org/public/speech/development/Bilingual-Children.htm

Bialystok, E., & Ryan, E.B. (1985) Toward a definition of metalinguistic skill. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 31, 229-51.

#e6E2n.^%^&WGuestCarroll, F.W. (1978) Cerebral dominance for language: a dichotic listening study of Navajo-English bilinguals.  In H.H.Key, G.g. McCullough & J.B. Sawyer (eds.) The Bilingual in a Pluralistic Society. Long Beach: California State University.

Datta, M. (2002). Bilinguality and literacy – Principles and practice. London: Continuum.

Giugni, M. (2002). The strength of bilingualism. Every Child, Volum8, No.1, Summer.

Hamers, J. F. & Blanc, M. H. A. (1983). Bilinguality and Bilingualism. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Larney, L. M. (2002). Differences in metacognitive memory strategies between bilingual and monolingual children. Retrieved on September 21, 2005 from http://www.anselm.edu/internet/psych/theses/seniors2002/lamey/background.html

Leopold, W.F. (1939-1949). Speech Development of a Bilingual Child. Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University Press, 4 Volumes.

Navarrete, Maria-Gina (1999). Verbal and nonverbal memory differences in bilingual children. Dissertation Abstracts-International: Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences, 60(4A), 1013.

Pearson, C. A. (1988). Cognitive differences between bilingual and monolingual children on the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children. Journal of Psychoeducational  Assessment, 6(3), 271-279.

Segalowitz, N. (1977) Psychological perspectives on bilingual education. In B. Spolsky & R. Cooper (eds.) Frontiers of Bilingual Education. Rowley, Mass: Newbury House.

Makoto Shichida, Ed. D. (2004) Mystery of the right brain – Every child can be a genius! Results on the latest approach in education. Singapore: Superachievers Pte Ltd.

Tomatis, Alfred A. (1997). The ear and language. France: Stoddart Publishing.

Vaid, J. & Lambert, W.E. (1979) Differential cerebral involvement in the cognitive functioning of bilinguals. Brain and Language, 8, 92-110.
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z,I;J1K*utsGuestVygotsky, L. S. (1962) Thought and Language. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press.

Walters, J. & Zatorre, R.J. (1978) Laterality differences for word identification in bilinguals. Brain and Language, 6, 158-67.